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Table of content
FOREWORDS
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Ssabasajja Kabaka Ronald Muwenda Kimera Mutebi II
King of Buganda
The Tombs of Buganda Kings at Kasubi are the pride of our Kingdom, by its international stature and
by the splendour of the main building, the Muzibu-Azaala-Mpanga, an unequalled architectural
achievement for vegetal architecture. Its destruction by flames ten years ago shocked us all. No one
could have imagined experiencing this one day in their lives. Its loss erased a strong landmark of our
culture, a sacred mausoleum where the souls of my 4 predecessors rest, but also a proof of the
greatness of our kingdom.
As the Kabaka,
lt was my duty to resurrect this building, to seal the wounds inflicted by its loss,
lt was my duty to once again offer a prestigious shelter to the souls of my forefathers,
lt was also my duty to show the world that our culture is still vibrant and that our craftsmen are capable
of reproducing the deeds of the past.
The reconstruction, which is moving forward at a fast pace, was a real challenge mobilizing hundreds
of people. The kingdom, with the support of the Ugandan government, has made every effort to
achieve this. The best engineers and architects have invested in the project. The World Heritage site
status acquired in 2001 also helped us to mobilize international resources. Indeed, we have benefited
from very significant support from UNESCO and the Government of Japan, which has made it possible
to mobilize international experts to enrich the debate on the reconstruction strategies to be adopted.
The Japanese expertise on thatching and that of CRAterre on issues of authenticity have been very
useful to us.
The reconstruction could have made use of contemporary industrial materials. Many proposals were
made to me in this regard: Why not take advantage of the destruction of this old architecture to build
something modern? But that would have definitely distorted the site and erased a page from the
history book of our great kingdom. If the site has acquired its status as a World Heritage Site, it is
among other things thanks to the know-how it demonstrates. It is indeed a "masterpiece of human
creative genius’ as designated by UNESCO.
This is why we wanted to take advantage of this reconstruction to give the craftsmen the chance to
practice their art and revitalize it. A new generation of thatchers has emerged from this tragedy and is
already showing great talent. We wish them all the best in bringing to life the knowledge they have
inherited and we thank them for committing themselves to this professional path. This guide to which
they have greatly contributed pays tribute to their achievements and marks a further step in the
recognition of a unique technique.
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Mechtild Rossler
Director of the UNESCO World Heritage Centre
The international community joined the Buganda Kingdom and local communities in mourning the destruction of the
Muzibu-Azaala-Mpanga, which housed the tombs of the four previous Buganda Kings and is considered a masterpiece
of Ganda architecture, during a devastating fire at the Tombs of Buganda Kings at Kasubi World Heritage property in
Uganda in 2010.
In response to this disaster, the UNESCO World Heritage Committee inscribed the site on the List of World Heritage
in Danger in order to mobilize international support for its reconstruction. In 2013, UNESCO received a generous
contribution from the Government of Japan to support a 650,000 USD project entitled ‘Technical and financial
assistance for the reconstruction of Muzibu-Azaala-Mpanga, architectural masterpiece of the Tombs of Buganda Kings
at Kasubi, Uganda, World Heritage property in Danger’.
The project was designed to offer Emergency Assistance to Uganda and accompany them in rehabilitating the
property in view of its removal from the List of World Heritage in Danger. It aims to set up an efficient risk prevention
scheme at the site with all the equipment needed and support the cost of qualified supervision for the reconstruction
of the destroyed roof. In addition, the project is providing scientific support to the team in charge of reconstruction
to ensure that the ‘outstanding universal values’ of the site, both tangible and intangible, are maintained.
This thatching guide is one of the results of this project, and was developed through close and wide collaborations
with the Buganda Kingdom, its craftspeople team, Mr. Jonathan Nsubuga (the site architect), Japanese experts on
thatched structures who visited the site during the course of the project as well as a CRAterre (International Centre
for Earthen Architecture) expert.
lam confident that it will prove to be a cherished reference for the continued maintenance of the Kasubi Tombs site,
which will reinforce respect for the unique know-how of the Buganda Kingdom craftspeople and for other cultural
sites around the world.
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Takio Yamada, Former Permanent Delegate and
Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of Japan to UNESCO
Following the devastating fire in 2010 that ravaged the Tombs of Buganda Kings at Kasubi World Heritage property
in Uganda, the Government of Japan through the Japanese Funds-in-Trust to UNESCO offered emergency assistance
to Uganda with the project ‘Technical and financial assistance for the reconstruction of Muzibu-Azaala-Mpanga,
architectural masterpiece of the Tombs of Buganda Kings at Kasubi, Uganda, World Heritage property in Danger’ in
the hopes of removing the site from the List of World Heritage in Danger.
As part of the project, we sent a team of experts from Japan on four missions from 2011 to 2016 to work with the
reconstruction team at the site on the thatching work required for the roof structure of the Muzibu-Azaala-Mpanga.
They shared experiences from thatching projects in Japan as well as insights and advice on fire prevention methods.
These exchanges of expertise between Japan and Uganda are reflected in this Thatching Guide, which provides a
valuable reference not only for the Kasubi site but also for other similar structures around the world.
We are honoured that Japan could help bring solutions and much-needed support to this tragic situation, and hope
that this project will help the Tombs of Buganda Kings at Kasubi World Heritage property to be successfully removed
from the List of World Heritage in Danger.
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Christopher Kawoya
Wabulakayole (Senior thatcher of the Buganda Kingdom)
| was born in 1932 and | started thatching in 1955 at the age of 23, following the steps of my father who
was himself the Wabulakayole (senior thatcher) of the Kingdom. By that time, we were many thatchers in
Buganda. Each sacred site had its own thatchers team. Work was easier because materials were easily
available everywhere. We were living comfortably although nobody was paying us. We were receiving gifts
in kind for our work and we also had our small farms to sustain our families.
| built and maintained roofs constantly for the past 64 years, at Kasubi, Wamala, Naggalabi-Buddo,
Kyebando, Kanzizi, Banda, Bwanika... | am proud of my achievements and proud of my skills. | have trained
many thatchers, some of them already died.
| built my first roof on my own at the age of 35, after 12 years of work under my father’s supervision. A year
later, in 1968, | was made Wabulakayole, because my father had become too weak to handle the work. My
father wrote a letter to the Ngeye clan (Colobus monkey) elders to announce his resignation as
Wabulakayole and suggested to transfer the responsibility to me, which the elders accepted. This was a
discreet nomination, without ceremony or rituals performed because by that time the Kingdom was
abolished. One day, one of my sons will take over my responsibilities.
Today, only one group of 18 thatchers remain and we have to maintain all the sites in the Buganda Kingdom
ourselves. Getting the raw materials has become a challenge, because forests and bushes have
disappeared. But | am confident for the future. Our skills can not disappear because they have been
recognised by UNESCO, and because we will always be called by the Kingdom to maintain thatched roofs.
The sad days when we had lost recognition and respect are now behind us.
At the age of 87, | keep going to Kasubi every day to transfer my skills to the young thatchers. | also keep
working despite my age because | want to see Muzibu-Azaala-Mpanga, the great hut which got destroyed
in 2010 rebuilt.
| encourage the young thatchers to keep working hard and to never give up. There is enough work for many
thatchers in the country. Our thatching technique is the most difficult one in Uganda. Buganda thatchers
can therefore keep themselves busy with other techniques when they are not mobilised on Buganda sacred
sites. This is what | have done throughout my life, | have practised other techniques in various Kingdoms
within Uganda, but our technique remains my favourite.
INTRODUCTION
Thatched roofs are becoming scarce on all continents. They are generally reserved for
modest homes in rural areas. Outstanding exceptions in the design and construction of
thatched roofs however exist. UNESCO's World Heritage List presents several of these
extraordinary architectures, which prove that it is possible to build huge monuments just
from dry grass and a few reeds, an unthinkable concept for a contemporary engineer or
architect trained in reinforced concrete.
At a time when humanity is trying to reinvent architecture to return to more environmentally friendly
practices, thatch is once again becoming popular. The ecotourism industry and the heritage sector are
embracing thatch as a warm and welcoming material which enhances the visitors experience. But these
practices remain marginal and some techniques such as the one described in this guide, which are totally
unknown and undocumented, could disappear.
The examples on the next page show some of the human achievements in the production of straw roofs.
Each region has its own technique, linked to the natural resources available, the climate and maintenance
needs. The technique described in this guide differs from others in that the straw is not tightly attached to
the roof structure. Only a few bundles at the base and those hidden below the surface are tied. Most grass
bundles are held in place by the upper ones, by compression. The great advantage of this concept is that it
makes it easier to maintain roofs, replacing straw only in places where it is damaged, without dismantling
large portions of the roof. This partly reduces the maintenance work that these roofs require.
Another curiosity that makes this technique very different from the others is that the grass is placed "upside
down", stem inside and leaves at the bottom, exposed. In most thatching techniques, the thicker and more
resistant base of the stem is exposed to the elements. The grass is normally laid in the same direction it
grows, leaves up and stem down. Buganda craftsmen have shown that the opposite is also possible.
It took centuries of practice for Ugandan craftsmen to achieve such excellence in terms of knowledge, to
move from basketry to house roofs and then to giant palaces and tomb roofs. The largest roof in the
Kingdom, covering Muzibu-Azaala-Mpanga on Kasubi Hill is 31 m in diameter, making it one of the largest
straw roofs in the world. This masterpiece contributed greatly to the inscription of the Kasubi tombs on
UNESCO's World Heritage List in 2001. These architectures represent one facet only of the immense
creativity of the Kingdom’s craftsmen. Even today, Buganda men and women impress us with the finesse
of their work and the constant renewal of the decorative motifs, especially in the production of mats and
baskets. This cultural richness is internationally recognized.
Yet this heritage is fragile. The loss of knowledge, the scarcity of materials and fires are wreaking havoc. We
must remain vigilant to celebrate artisans in their art, and encourage young people to join them. We need
to let them know that what they are doing is truly exceptional and unique. This book is a first step in
recording the knowledge of the last craftsmen in order to prevent it from being lost. It has been written on
the basis of information accumulated by CRAterre over 25 years of collaboration with the craftsmen and
several institutions that showed interest in their work, within Uganda and at the international level. This
guide aims to transmit technical information only. It should be noted that many rituals punctuate each
construction phase of these roofs. These rituals, most of which are kept secret, are unfortunately not
described here, but they should be respected as they are an integral part of this exceptional heritage.
Kasubi Tombs, World Heritage Site, Uganda
(Largest thatched structure in Buganda known as “Muzibu Azaala Mpanga”)
Bafut Chief Palace, Cameroon Haohe Village, World Heritage Site, Korea
Photo David Gandreau CRAterre Photo David Gandreau CRAterre
a
Gokayama, World Heritage Site, Japan hirakawa-go, World Heritage Site, Japan
Photo Jun'ichi Hasegawa Photo Jun'ichi Hasegawa
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Tourist restaurant in Nangurukuru, Tanzania
SKILLS
Eighteen skilled thatchers belonging to the Buganda Kingdom are currently available. Five of them belong
to the Ngeye (colobus monkey) clan. The others belong to 10 other clans, namely Ngo (leopard), Nte (cow),
Mamba (lung fish), Mpologoma (Lion), Nkima (Monkey), Essenene (Grasshopper), Ekoobe (Wild yam),
Embogo (Buffalo), Engabi (Antilope), Envubu (Hippopotamus). Practicing thatching is therefore not only
reserved for members of the Ngeye clan, even on sacred royal sites. On the other hand, only members of
this clan can access the supreme title of Wabulakayole (Senior thatcher of the Buganda Kingdom). Their
names and contact are available at the end of this guide. They are all men. Tradition unfortunately does not
allow women to work on roofs or even to enter buildings during the construction process.
All the thatchers have chosen this profession voluntarily. They have followed very different paths before
embracing this vocation. All of them have acquired their knowledge through practice, working with
Christopher Kawoya and his son Steven Lumbuye, particularly at the Wamala and Kasubi sites. It easily takes
ten years of practice before one can master the construction of a new roof without the help of a more
experienced thatcher.
They all believe that their skills will go through a revival process thanks to the respect that their profession
has earned and thanks also to the flourishing tourism industry in Uganda. However, the future of their
profession remains fragile, and depends on the contracts they will be given to maintain existing roofs or
build new ones. Competition from other technologies is also a threat to their knowledge. Thatch roofs of
the English or South African type that bloom on tourist sites (ecolodges) are faster to erect and more
durable over time (chemically treated reeds), but their maintenance remains complicated.
Even if the ganda thatching technique is fascinating, its long-term preservation remains a challenge
requiring a permanent struggle on the part of thatchers who must maintain the excellence of their know-
how to attract potential customers who will offer them the opportunity to practice their art.
ROOF DESIGN
DIMENSIONS
The Buganda thatched roofs are all conical in shape. Their standard diameter ranges from 6 to 10 metres,
but as we have seen on page 6, they can reach 31 m for the largest. Concerning the design of the structures,
the craftsmen were not able to provide us with precise design rules. Diameters, heights, proportions are
not calculated or written down before construction. There are no construction drawings made. Dimensions
are defined by the eye when building, by the most experienced thatcher who gives his guidance by
observing the site from a distance.
The sketch below shows the common proportions observed on existing roofs.
Diameter outside (Dou)
; Diameter inside (Di,) ‘
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Height outside (D,,)
Height inside (Hin)
Hout = 2/3 Dout | Hin = Din/2 | Hin = Dout - Hout
THATCH VENTILATION
Doubling the thatch with another material to ensure the long-term waterproofing of the roof is tempting.
Many builders have tried to lay thatch on corrugated iron sheets, as shown below. These attempts usually
give disastrous results because the iron sheets block natural ventilation and accelerate the natural
decomposition process of the thatch.
®
No cross ventilation
Cross ventilation ————»>
Photo Remigious Kigongo
SHAPE AND SLOPE
The roof slope has a direct impact on durability and
maintenance needs. It should be noted that thatch
bundles are positioned with a lower gradient than the
final roof slope, as shown in the drawing on the right. If
you want the roof to last for long with the lowest possible
maintenance, then you should aim for the steepest
possible slope.
In financial terms, while it is true that a shallow slope will require less material and cost less to build, it will
be ruinous to maintain, because the straw will not be able to dry between rains and serious deterioration
will appear very quickly.
sco |6|—lUY
Durability ++
This is the ideal and most durable
pitch, because water can hardly
37 «=—®
This shape is also common because
it requires less materials, but it does
This is the most commonly seen slope,
but it requires yearly maintenance
penetrate deep into the thatch not last
Cost
More expensive to build but Expensive to build and expensive Cheaper to build but ruinous to
cheaper to maintain to maintain maintain
Examples
bie eM eB Ae) a
Muzibu-Azaala-Mpanga 1891
(Museum archives)
Muzibu-Azaala-Mpanga 2006
Traditional hut, Makole 2014 Wamala 2011
LR Os prc et
nae os Tec gon
Abalongo Abasimbiri Kasubi 2011 Naggalabi Buddo 2006 National Museum, Kampala 2010
DRAWING EXAMPLE
Plan
Bujjabukula restoration drawings by Jonathan Nsubuga & Associates
The numbers (1 to 14) refer to the rafters.
Empadi ze
200x75 mm muvule
hardwood rafter
Ekisenge ke muuli
Esubi we
Liyita
Hard sticks cladded witt
reeds (structural reeds)
10
DRAWING EXAMPLE
Sections
Bujjabukula restoration drawings by Jonathan Nsubuga & Associates
- Spear grass bundles
Sisal strings connecting
ceiling to rafter
150x50mm Muvule
Hardwood rafter
— = as Smoked
Inverted basket shape y eo oes. reed ceiling
Hard sticks to stiffen
reed cladding
I [eee |
TT Es Sn Timber posts
TE : pa
TT
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TOTO
CMM
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a a kyomumbiliizi
SECTION X-X
KASUBI ROYAL TOMBS RECONSTRUCTION
Existing 250mm
thick Brick wall
BUGANDA KINGDOM
™
KASUBI ROYAL TOMBS
RECONSTRUCTION
SULLEGE VLA GOTT HOUSE
SHELTON KX
meee ER
—
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CUO
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per
1400 1500 3520 950 L000 1368 1450
SECTION Y-Y
KASUBI ROYAL TOMBS RECONSTRUCTION
11
BS
150x50mm Muvule
Hardwood rafter
Hard Sticks to stiff
reed cladding
bs
150mm dia reed bundles
cladded in lemon gjass tied
tagether with sisaljstrings
Smoked
B hr | reed ceiling
Timber posts
\ | Omulyango
Sees =
+ . BUGANDA KINGDOM
> Ettaka
=
KASUBI ROYAL TOMBS
RECONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS
ROOF SKELETON MATERIALS
The initial skeleton of the roof is composed of long rafters resting at the base on the peripheral walls and
at the top on a central pole. In the past, rafters were made of round Emikomba woods, but today it is
generally 2”x 6” or 2”x 5” sawn Muvule that is used. The rafters are then covered with round Musambya
battens. For an average structure of about 8 m in diameter, the coverage is done with 12 rafters according
to the diagram below.
Rafters are assembled with 6" nails and sometimes also with brackets screwed into the wood with lag
screws, as shown in the picture on the left.
The battens are fixed with 5" nails, but also with binding wires for those that are difficult to bend.
Rafters : 2”x 6” Muvule
chemically treated with
insecticide/fongicide.
Battens : Round
Musambya woods
Central pole : Round
Musambya pole
Battens Z
Rafters
Central pole ——»
CEILING MATERIALS
The main ceiling material are the reeds. Reeds are delivered in bundles. They are needed in huge quantities
and should be stored in a dry place, without any contact with the ground. Keeping the reeds bundles
standing up against a tree, for example, is not a good solution, as they will quickly be damaged by moisture
and termites. The reeds used at Kasubi were sourced from Masaka region.
Once the bundles are opened, the reeds are selected to eliminate fragile and partially rotten ones. Then,
the reeds are smoothed with a knife blade to remove the remaining leaves attached to the stem but also
to smoothen the knots. For the reeds that remain visible (for ceilings or fences), they are polished with sand
using a cloth, which makes them smooth and shiny.
whi
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| Smoothing the reeds with a knife
Second smoothing with sand Smooth reeds
12
To make the rings, the reeds are tied together with sisal rope. For the visible inner rings, they are covered, once
the ceiling is finished, with palm frond sticks (Amavuvuume), themselves tied against the rings with water grass
rope (Enjulu).
Tying the reeds with sisal rope to prefabricate rings Inner rings covered with palm frond sticks
(Amavuvuume) tied with water grass rope (Enjulu)
The large lower rings (visible ones) and the smaller upper rings (hidden ones above the ceiling) are tied together
to hold the ceiling reeds firmly in place with quadrupled metal binding wires (1 mm). The ceiling itself is held to
the roof skeleton with strong metal wires (2 mm).
2mm metal wire (doubled) to tie the ceiling to the roof
skeleton
Small upper rings : 20-30 reeds tied with sisal rope
Ceiling : Reeds only
1 mm binding wire (quadrupled) : to hold the 2 rings together
Large lower rings : 50-60 reeds tied with sisal rope, and then
covered with palm frond sticks (Amavuvuume), tied with water
grass rope (Enjulu)
ROOF MATERIALS
Spear grass
The main roof material is spear grass, which is prepared in bundles before being installed on the roof. Spear
grass grows naturally all year round. Mature grass ranges between 120 and 140 cm in height. When ready,
the spear grass is cut at the base, very close to the earth, and stacked on the ground in small heaps. It is
then tied in big bundles without any specific cleaning (contains a few other plant species), and kept on the
ground until is it is taken away. (Moriset, 2006). As with reeds, very large quantities of grass are required
because sorting the grass on site to remove broken or damaged pieces results in 50% of loss. We noticed a
huge loss between cutting the grass in the field and using it on site, as the fresh stems are tied together in
bundles at the harvest site. This makes it easy for them to rot. Ideally, the grass should be dried and sorted
at the cutting field to deliver only good quality dry bundles.
Once on site, the big bundles are sorted out and the good quality spear grass stems are kept to manufacture
smaller bundles with a diameter of 5-6 cm. Bigger bundles with a 10-15 cm diameter are also prepared for
the base of the roof. The bundles are tied to the battens either with tree bark fibre (Ebinsambwe) or with
sisal rope. The bundles are then attached to the roof using the same ropes/fibres: sisal or Ebinsambwe.
13
Bi
Cutting spear grass at the base Bundling spear grass in the field
Photo Kazuhiko Nitto
Ve re t .
Seed, f - fc
Vy Ly ty Vd Wigs Py f % i Th . o5 if : : oh ae + =
MR Es Yd iil: fhe, hi | id MG, 4s aA, wi A ach eA TE x ; ») ie ve ean PEA ic te anise Pan RE ead
Laying spear grass on the ground for drying and removing unsuitable elements (ot
her plants and broken stems)
Heh |
|) \
BEAN
nts and tying the bundle in a conical shape with a sisal rope
Combing a bundle with a stick to remove unwanted eleme
4 photos by Brian Kalema
14
TO O LS (May 2014 work doc)
HAND AND FEET
The tools necessary for the construction of these roofs are very simple, and
reflect the sobriety of the materials used. The complete set of tools can fit
in a small bag and weigh less than 5kg. Eyes and hands are the main tool,
they do almost everything. The feet are also used sometimes to hold
elements and the legs to push the reeds in place... Basically, the entire body
is used to stretch, weave and shape the fibres to create these perfect
basket-like curved shapes.
Two striking elements on the sites are: the silence (no electric tools are
used) and the appeasing smell of the natural materials.
Braiding sisal rope at Kasubi
MAIN TOOLS USED
FILE / FAILO
HACKSAW / KASUMENI!
KNIFE / AKAMBE
PLYERS / MAGALO
HAMMER / NYONDO
BOWSAW / VIUSUMENI
STICK / EMBWA
MALLET / KiYONDO
15
MEASURING TOOLS
The craftsmen do not use measuring tapes, although they constantly measure elements during the
construction process, such as the spacing between the rings to ensure that the circles are perfectly round.
According to the thatchers, the eyes play an essential role. The senior thatcher spends most of his time
observing the roof from a distance, to ensure that the curves, the spacing between the rings and other
details are perfect. Reeds also serve as measuring tools, using the gap between 2 knots as a unit. In that
case, all measurements are made with the same reed.
vim < i,
Measuring the space with the forearm
CUTTING TOOLS
Knives
Various knives can be seen on site. These are generally handmade knives with a wooden handle or industrial
kitchen knives with plastic handles. In that case, the weak plastic handle is reinforced by surrounding it with
bicycle tubes to make it last longer. The blade ranges from 10 to 20 cm in length.
The blades are sharpened several times daily with a metal file or sometimes also on stones.
Various knives used to cut and sharpen the reeds Blade sharpening with a file
Bowsaws
Bowsaws are used to cut the roof purlins and battens, the wooden poles and the rings (Ebizizi).
af
tt ——
Photo Kazuhiko Nitto
Hacksaws
Hacksaws serve to cut the reeds and sometimes the rings (Ebizizi) as well.
=
picture on the right shows the neat cut obtained.
w. The
16
OTHER TOOLS
Wood stick (Embwa)
This stick called "Embwa", about 70 cm long and 4 to 5 cm in diameter, bevelled at one end, is used by the
thatchers for many actions. They make it themselves by pruning a branch of the Musambya tree. The tool
is used as a lever to adjust the reeds or spread the reeds to pass binding wires. It also serves as a wedge to
hold the thatch bundles on the roof slope before installing them or as a grip to climb the roof. They also use
the stick to beat the thatch bundles and remove the loose elements such as dead leaves.
Preparing an Embwa Spreading the reeds
—
Wooden Mallet & Hammer
The wooden mallet is used to bend the rings which are prefabricated straight. The metal hammer serves
to pull the rings, to build the scaffoldings and build the roof skeleton (rafters and battens).
an FB L i r Fi A Sen! 4 yy . ~ s \ .
is ‘S eS f * Yt Mi he. ate. ~~
pore iwi : 3 he ' ‘ 3 « a a ey bE
—_ ee fs, , ax , fg rs ia : OP (ele - 1 a
pulling a ring with a hammer
Rags
Smoothening reeds with a rag filled with sand
Ladder Plyers
Ladders are key to build and maintain roofs Plyers are used to tie and cut the binding wires.
17
L
STEP-BY-STEP CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
1 SETTING THE CENTRAL POLE
The central pole, made of musambya wood is set in a prefabricated hole, sealed in concrete. The hidden
base should be treated with insecticide. The installation of the central pole is a strong symbolic act that
involves rituals.
2 INSTALLING THE RAFTERS
The number and size of the rafters depends on the roof span. The rafters should be resistant enough to
carry both the weight of the thatch and the weight of the ceiling. Small structures (6-10 meters diameter)
can use ordinary Muvule rafters. All wooden rafters are pre-treated against humidity and insects before
being assembled.
>
Timber skeleton, mixing 2x5” and
2x3” rafters, Kajjaga, Kasubi
Timber skeleton, using 2x6”
rafters, Balongo Abawenda
house, Kasubi
18
3 NAILING THE BATTENS
The round Musambia battens are nailed onto the rafters with a spacing ranging between 1-2’ (40-50 cm).
The spacing should not be too small because the workers on the roof must be able to easily pass the arms
to install the suspended ceiling and then install the reeds. They must also be able to pass their legs to sit
easily on the battens while working.
e
; , AN . i o.
i ki \ hvala
} ‘) \ bom “ ; aw ~.
“VW Ngee
) ‘ SS
Ne . - we
yh NGS, ee. eee Sa
QS ee ax _"
Workers sitting on the battens
to work on the ceiling.
Workers sitting on the battens
to work on the ceiling.
Photo © Remigious Kigongo
J. SETTING THE 3 UPPER RINGS
The rings are installed starting from the top moving downwards. The upper rings are full of intangible
significance and even have names (Nkata for the smallest, Katumyo and Bugwe afterwards). As with the
central pole, their preparation and their installation require that rituals be performed. In most of the roofs,
differences can be seen in the aesthetic finishes of these rings. The rings are made of palm frond sticks
(Amavuvuume) because the curve of the small rings is too sharp for bending reeds.
There are two options for the rings:
e Option 1: Preparing them on the ground and installing them to the
central pole before nailing the rafters.
e Option 2: Manufacturing the rings directly around the central pole
once the rafters are in place.
| Manufacturing the first ring
Upper rings examples Balongo Abawenda house and BujjaBukula, Kasubi. around the pole.
19
Manufacturing the top rings around the central pole
a Bs ae
Se
y-<s
me
ye
i
Cm
al
; = 7
x 3 Bk %i, i? it /
: , m a> 4
i Ses
if
Pe
—_——-.
os
a
_ The first rings are generally fabricated around the central
, pole. This is an uncomfortable activity, especially for the
smallest ring because the pole disturbs hand movements.
Manufacturing the top rings on the ground
This more comfortable option allows the manufacture of high-quality rings.
Bent palm frond sticks (Amavuvuume) Palm leaves fibres The ring is then wrapped with
are held together with palm leaves fibres (Obuso) hand-braided sisal rope
| ys is Py
a) a) vr ; : S
Mii ti (i lf,
Ve % ’ Ps
Braiding the sisal rope used to wrap the rings The spacing between subsequent rings is always the same
20
5 MAKING THE CEILING
The ceiling is built from the top. Long rings are pre-constructed on the ground before being bent with
mallets (see images page 17), cut to the right length and then installed in the right position by tying them
to the battens with binding wires. There are two series of rings, those visible from inside, which measure
12 to 14 cm in diameter (requiring 50-60 reeds), and those above the ceiling, which are only 7 to 8 cm in
diameter (requiring 20-30 reeds). The upper and lower rings are linked in pairs using binding wires or sisal
rope. Between the rings is the reed ceiling itself, which thickness varies depending on the roof span and the
desired level of finishing. The following thicknesses can be seen at Kasubi: 4, 7, 12, 15” (10, 18, 30, 38 cm).
7 Po Ns
MMT ecu XN
Installing the reeds Installing the rings
Sorting the reeds
Reeds are delivered in bundles and sorted. The good ones (those that are straight and 3 m long) are set
aside for the ceiling. Imperfect ones (not straight, shorter than 3 m) are used to make the rings.
Manufacturing the rings
The rings are prefabricated on the ground in long lengths, linking reeds together with sisal rope at about 20
cm intervals. The bundles are tightened as much as possible to give them rigidity. Each reed is sharpened
at the end to facilitate its insertion into the bundle.
ae a
“42 a
Tightening the bundle
Installing the large rings and inserting the reeds
The rings are installed from the top moving downwards, as the ceiling is being built. For each new ring
inserted, reeds are inserted to form the ceiling. The two operations are inseparable. The reeds are forced
in from below. Once pushed in, their position is adjusted using the work stick (Embwa). Once all the reeds
are placed, the connection between the large lower rings and the smaller upper rings is reinforced with
quadrupled binding wires. In order to be able to pass the binding wires through the very dense ceiling, the
reeds are spread using the stick (Embwa).
21
Aden Hie eed Seaton to Tan work: one pushes the reeds. i NaeeE sat of the eal done
avoid overlaps and the other adjusts the position
photo Remigious Kigongo
Cutting a prefabricated ring to Lower and upper rings attached SEE on athe cailing at the door eval |. Lower
the right size with a sisal rope and upper rings are attached with binding wire
6 COMPLETING THE CEILING
The work continues in the same way down to the bottom. The reeds that protrude below are cut off at
the last moment, when the work is finished.
es
gd
Leet SUE
BONIS ——
pall NN
as
22
SUA Mh Me Yi UE ALE RR iM
> i_s
—~ - -
Vi { aes, e ; _ gee r- rae
mm steel wires connecting the The reeds are not cut at the bottom
ceiling to the battens until the work is finished
ae
The rings are wrapped at the end with palm frond sticks and water grass The ceiling must be protected from rain
with a tarpaulin during the work
rf THATCHING THE BASE
Thatch bundles are attached starting from bottom moving upwards. They are linked to the battens using
tree bark fibre (Ebinsambwe) or sisal rope. An additional battens structure is sometimes added to the roof,
as shown in the pictures below. The lower eaves are neatly trimmed with a knife at the end.
A GE iii HERON | or
Y a dane
Y/ PTT
a Th
a
3 photos by Remigious Kigongo
23
Example of neatly cut eaves The thatch should not touch the ground
oS THATCHING THE ROOF
The construction process continues in the same way up to the top.
Le
i{
wud oO
NUNC file eS
, f
TOM NSS
Ze KM em mine
4 Zep PME
aa eee
>
rT
G FINISHING THE TOP
Particular care is taken with the hat that covers the top of the roof. This straw hat is attached to a
Musambya stick planted in the straw.
~
.
hy Me 1
Vt) J Joes sss SSS
24
ee of top finishes
2 photos on the left by Remigious Kigongo
1 0 DECORATING THE ENTRANCE
Entrances are the trademark of these meticulous architectures. It is here that the craftsmen show the quality of
their know-how through extremely well cared-for finishes.
oe Peo
“Vey | 7
YL TT =
ay om E
i
a
i
mi
i HN
PAT
es
eee, ee
TT cicclala TE oe Pa o
Details on athe extra ceiling covering the enirance
2 photos by Remigious Kigongo
Wiusiba Aaale WisanGa side entrance, Kasubi
25
‘h Hit
it ! i | ! ( Mi I mh i
THAT
ytd vi if My
ii Mey |
AN Laos
Bujjabukula entrance, Kasubi ius baasaales -Mpanga side entrance, Kasubi
1 1 FINISHES
Once the roof is finished, there are still some decorations and interior fittings to be done, tasks that fall under
the responsibility of the Leopard Clan (Ngo clan) members. This work includes the installation of the bark cloth
curtain and the dressing of the floor with mats laid on a dry lemon grass layer. This final step in the entire
construction process also includes cleansing rituals.
Women preparing floor mats,
Kasubi
Bark cloth curtain, Balongo
Abasimbiri house, Kasubi
Leg
il Ve fe
Tin MTT
SSS c7z5
Hi
F||
i
i a a
mai . i, @
h MA
AAT
26
“ee ~ DETERIORATION AND MAINTENANCE
Deterioration factors
DESIGN
A shallow roof slope
causes raindrops to
Sng oe infiltrate rather than run
NP Atay, im = off to the ground.
~ie\ excellent poor
HUMIDITY
Rain is the primary source of roof
humidification. If the roof is not
maintained and its slope is low,
the straw can't resist repeated
humidification for long.
LEAVES
The tree-leaves caught in
the straw decompose and
contribute to the rotting
of the straw, especially if PLANTS
it is already wet. Plants grow on damp
Nik roofs that can no
Jd
longer dry out. d Jd
Birds search the straw for
WINDSTORMS
insects and larvae
and deepen the
Strong winds
gullies. They also
"unravel" roofs and
open gullies in which
simply take water and plant
straw out of debris, including
the roof.
seeds, settle.
Jl
TERMITES
Once in the roof,
termites are not
immediately visible
but do considerable
damage over the
months, first on the
straw, then on the
rings and structural
roof elements.
|
HUMIDITY TERMITES
v Water also rises to the roofs by capillary Termites need cellulose to feed their colony. Therefore,
when the straw touches the ground. any access to the straw is good to them.
The deterioration of roofs is linked to many factors. Climatic conditions play an important role. Thatched
roofs are generally built on hilltops that are highly exposed to heavy rains and wind. Tall trees can also be
a damaging factor as they increase the risk of dead leaves mixing with the straw. Branches scratching the
thatch during storms have also been witnessed.
An essential factor in the resistance of a roof is its ability to get rid of moisture as quickly as possible, so
that the straw can dry as soon as the sun appears. For this, two parameters are essential: first, the slope of
the roof, which must be as steep as possible, to accelerate the water flow and prevent deep penetration of
moisture. Secondly, the separation of the straw from the soil. If a gap is not maintained between the
ground and the straw, the roof acts like a sponge sucking moisture from below. Direct contact also facilitates
the ascent of termites, which are another major deterioration factor.
27
s
=
ya
_
rm
ya
Pn
Fa
2)
mr
The domino effect, from windstorms to collapse
WINDSTORMS, LEAVES, SEEDS
Strong windstorms move the straw
and create gullies in which dead
leaves and seeds penetrate.
TERMITES
Termites can easily climb into the thatch,
especially when it touches the ground.
Termites need a very humid environment to
develop. The deteriorating wet straw offers
them a conducive environment and a
perfect source of cellulose that they can
easily digest.
DOMINO EFFECT
We therefore observe a domino effect, the first
infiltrations leading to the humidification of the
straw and therefore its progressive deterioration
which attracts termites, fond of cellulose, and
birds, fond of termites.
If infiltration problems are
not addressed by regular
replacement of damaged
Straw, the process can go as
far as partial or collapse of
the roof.
HUMIDITY, PLANTS
the shifting of straw by the wind facilitates
rainwater infiltration, especially when roofs
do not have sufficient slope. Moisture can
also rise from below when the straw is in
contact with the ground. The wet straw sags
and gullies open up. The decomposed straw
becomes fertile ground for plants to grow
and roots to develop deep into the thatch.
BIRDS
Once installed in the straw, termites attract
some birds such as crows who come to search
the straw with their beaks to eat them, which
causes significant damage, and also increases
infiltration. Birds also bring new seeds
through their faeces, favouring the
development of additional vegetation.
4
Se
ROOF MAINTENANCE
THE REGULAR MAINTENANCE CHALLENGE
The main challenge is to break this cascade of destructive effects on the roof by providing regular
maintenance. If the damaged straw is replaced in time and the bundles shifted by the wind are readjusted,
the roof can be considered safe. Regular roof maintenance also helps to maintain the craftsmen’s
knowledge alive.
In reality, this requires a real organization to ensure that both manpower and materials are available when
repairs are needed. Carrying out small, inexpensive repairs once or twice a year is much more cost-effective
than waiting for a significant sagging to occur. Two to three years without maintenance can lead to
significant damage requiring both very large quantities of materials and highly skilled labour.
This need for permanent maintenance is part of the technology itself, as explained in the introduction and
in the previous chapter on construction. If the thatch bundles are not all tied to the roof, it is precisely to
enable an easy replacement in case of damage. It is also interesting to note that the replacement of a few
decayed thatch bundles can be done by a junior craftsperson.
AM Ae CE
\
%
> f mit YP, , ,
We Ll (eZ ox -,
Oe! SA eg Oe, Y Ay “ x
as 2 OA A ye LES fe
Removal of decayed thatch at Kasubi Insertion of new bundles at the base of BujjaBukula, Kasubi
oe Alina Cy hea” we
‘ Rian tay Oe ce
7 4 =
KEEPING THATCH, FUNDS AND TOOLS
Regular maintenance is easily delayed by a lack of funds or materials. Efficient site management requires
that a regular budget be dedicated to labour and straw. The quality of storage of these spare materials is
important, because straw kept on the ground does not last. Straw, loose or in spindles, should be kept ina
dry and ventilated place as shown in the examples below. In addition to this, a set of tools including a ladder
should always be available to easily climb on the roof.
y ate j Bir dn “ah ®
re: Fone ke Fea
v = “ a ar, me Sede jee
a . ' - «<
hee os 4
; wr =
7
5
se —
fee Ga ee
| Shed for keepin
29
REGULAR MAINTENANCE TASKS
Keeping the thatch dry
The deterioration speed of a roof is directly linked to its moisture content. The drier a straw roof is, the
more resistant it is over time. To achieve durability, roofs must be regularly inspected to fill up gullies
through which water infiltrates. The inspection should be done at regular intervals and after severe storms.
Removing dead leaves and trimming trees
Dead leaves tend to cling to the ends of the straw bundles and then decompose in the roof. To avoid this,
trees with branches developing too close to the roofs should be trimmed. As a general rule, no tree should
grow within 5 metres of the roofs, to avoid shading the thatch or cutting off the wind, which is necessary
for drying the straw. If, despite everything, leaves settle on the roof in quantity, they must be removed.
Removing plants
Plants growing in the gullies should be removed as soon as possible. The longer we wait, the deeper the
roots penetrate into the straw, creating waterways that are extremely damaging to the roof. Once the
plants are removed, the decayed wet straw must be replaced by dry one.
Replacing thatch bundles
Once the dead leaves and plants have been eliminated, the decomposing straw can be removed and
replaced with dry bundles. It is advisable to check the weather forecasts so that this replacement can be
done in sunny weather, to allow the roof to dry. The new straw must be perfectly dry when it is laid.
The straw removed should not be thrown away. It should be given to farmers for mulching vegetable crops.
Drainage: keeping the site dry
The drainage of the site also limits the presence of humidity and termites, by diminishing the amount of
water absorbed by the ground. Slopes should be provided to drain runoff rainwaters from the buildings
towards farmland areas.
Cleaning and readjusting the thatch with a stick
SOS =
Inserting new bundles in a gully after removing decayed grass Drainage slopes made of compacted laterite
30
TERMITE CONTROL
How to discourage termites?
Termites are omnipresent underground. Eliminating them is an impossible fight. However, it
is possible to curb roof colonization by termites in different ways:
- By regularly trimming the lower part, i.e. cutting the end of the straw to maintain a space of at least
10 cm between the ground and the roof. Thus termites do not have a direct bridge between their
natural habitat and the straw.
- Byregularly maintaining the roof, to remove gullies as they appear and thus avoid any risk of
moistening the straw. We remind you that termites feed on rotting wet straw, not healthy dry straw.
- Byreplacing rotten straw by fresh one as quickly as possible.
- By inspecting the walls regularly to destroy any earth tunnels built by termites.
- By working the slopes around the building to ensure that runoff water is quickly drained as far as
possible, thus avoiding soil moisture that is favourable to termites.
- By not attracting them with food. Wood or straw stored on the ground are invitations for termites to
proliferate.
Contemporary improvements for new thatched structures
- Foranewconstruction, it is advisable to multiply the number of termite barriers. The wooden pole
bases must be treated, and if possible disconnected from the ground using a metal connector.
- Walls can integrate a termite barrier, i.e. a protruding element that termites cannot climb.
- A peripheral slab around the building also reduces the risk of a direct soil-to-straw invasion.
MAINTENANCE
The thatch is regularly cleaned and
redressed to avoid the deepening of
gullies
SOOT os
covering the )
ceiling and (
CLEANLINESS treating the
The surroundings should be thatch
clean to avoid maintaining
moisture and feeding termites
with decaying materials termites
(wood, straw, leaves...)
4
|
WOOD
Using safe wood
No sparks
aL
a
SLOPES ace ade
to d ra | n wate r a Wa y SED LEE EAS DE EELS LY DE I EE: ar dl AOU OU MO OT AO te saa
ground and =P BRK
RX KX XxX
ale SY
PERIPHERAL SLAB _f f
xX
for the poles METAL FOOTING
for the poles
thatch Saas
<< PQ RRRLLK
How can we make
It up there ?
a O
31
=
=
ya
_
rm
Fa
Pa
Fa
2)
mr
TREATMENT OPTIONS
Smoking
Thatched roofs are traditionally treated by smoking. Straw coated with soot is more resistant to moisture
on the one hand, and discourages termites on the other. Ideally, smoking should be done several times a
week, using dry wood that does not spark while burning. Wood species used include Kasaana (clears evil),
Musizi, Endagi, Muzanganda (to connect with the spirits), Mwule and Muwafa.
In any case, eucalyptus and Twalabafo are totally prohibited.
Regular indoor fires also help to dry the straw from the inside by sending hot air through the thick thatch
layer. To avoid fire hazards. To avoid the risk of fire, it is obvious that the layer of lemon grass on the ground
and the mats covering it must be moved when the fire is lit. On the other hand, no fire should be lit during
a storm or on a windy day.
Ashes & salt
Traditionally, a mixture of ashes and salt was applied around the buildings by the Kago (a person with a
key religious role on each site).
Chemicals
Various chemical treatments similar to wood treatments are commercially available to treat contemporary
thatched roofs against the risk of mould. They are sprayed on the dry straw. These treatments are to be
avoided, as they can penetrate the straw and end up in the building, where they could be breathed or even
ingested if infested water drops drip on food. They also present a risk of contamination of the surrounding
gardens when they are washed away by the rains and spread around the buildings. We therefore advise
against the use of these commercial products for health reasons.
a
a)
}
ry _
4 *
, —
iit a a «
w VV .
Rings protected by a layer of suit at Wamala tombs. Fire place within Wamala tombs.
Tee 7
*2 ae ‘
= >
ave 4
» SP ates
Fire place at Naggalabi-Buddo coronation site (Photos Nelson Adebo Abiti, Uganda Museum)
32
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Kings at Kasubi, a World Heritage property of Uganda, May 2014. Grenoble, UNESCO, CRAterre.
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Kings at Kasubi, a World Heritage property of Uganda, July 2014. Grenoble, UNESCO, CRAterre.
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Kings at Kasubi, a World Heritage property of Uganda, December 2015. Grenoble, UNESCO, CRAterre.
Nitto K., Hasegawa J., Furukawa H., 2011, Report of a Technical Investigation Concerning the Reconstruction
of the Muzibu-Azaala-Mpanga (I), UNESCO/Japan.
Nitto K., Hasegawa J., Furukawa H., 2013, Report of a Technical Investigation Concerning the Reconstruction
of the Muzibu-Azaala-Mpanga (II), UNESCO/Japan.
Nitto K., Hasegawa J., Sugasawa S., 2014, Report of a Technical Investigation Concerning the Reconstruction
of the Muzibu-Azaala-Mpanga (III), UNESCO/Japan.
Nsubuga J. (DIR), Nsereko M., Sentongo S., Kalanzi D., Nyanzi S., Kigongo R., 2013, Kasubi Royal Tombs
reconstruction, Kampala.
Nsubuga J., 2013 to 2019, Kasubi Royal Tombs reconstruction, Monthly progress reports, Kampala.
33
ENGLISH-GANDA GLOSSARY
Luganda
Olusenk
Essubi
Enjole
Olumuli/Emuli
Ekizizi/Ebizizi
Olubanyi
Nkata - Katumyo - Bugwe
Amavuvuume
Enjulu
Obuso
34
English
Fresh spear grass
Dry spear grass
Spear grass bundle
Reed/Reeds
latin: Pennisetum purpureum |
(also known as elephant grass :
or Uganda grass)
Ring/Rings
Ceiling
Names of the 3 upper rings
Palm frond sticks used to
wrap the rings but also
manufacture the small upper
rings that cannot be made of
reeds
Water grass used to wrap the
rings
Elephant palm tree leaf used to
wrap the small upper rings
Luganda
Kigoogwa
Bugoogwa
Mugwa
Enga
Ebinsambwe
(Ekinsambwe)
Musambya
Sserugatikka
Lubugo
Ekyoto
35
English
Industrial sisal rope
Sisal
Hand-braided sisal rope
Strips of swamp reed
Tree bark
(Ekinsambwe)
Me \ Small sections of the Musambya
tree
Central pole
Bark Cloth
Fire place
AUTHORS
Coordination
This guide was written and designed in December 2019 by Sebastien Moriset, Architect, CRAterre
Contributions
CRAFTSPEOPLE | On one hand, the main contributors are the craftspeople themselves, who openly shared
their knowledge with us over the years:
- Christopher Kawoya, Wabulakayole (Senior thatcher) of the Buganda Kingdom;
- Fabius Barungi, Mark Galiwango, Lawrence Kakooza, Brian Kalema, Zakayo Kalule, Emma Kasule, Steven
Lumbuye, Steven Lumbuye Junior, Abdul-Rahman Musisi, Joseph Mwanje, Eddie Ndawula, Simon Ssekayita,
Ronald Ssekibule, Joel Ssenkaali, Simeo Ssentamu, Joseph Ssentongo, Mourice Ssewanyana, ganda thatchers.
RESEARCHERS | On the other hand, the production of this guide would simply not have been possible without
the scientific works of the following researchers, who had the patience to provide us with countless data:
- Jonathan Nsubuga, Architect, Kampala, supervisor of the Muzibu-Azaala-Mpanga reconstruction project;
- Dr. Ephraim R. Kamuhangire, former Commissioner, Museums and Monuments, Ministry of Tourism,
Wildlife and Antiquities, Uganda;
- Kazuhiki Nitto, Conservation Architect and Professor at the University of Tsukuba;
- Junichi Hasegawa, Architect specialised in Disaster mitigation;
- Shigeru Sugasawa, Architect, Department of architecture at the Kogakuin University.
Acknowledgements
We sincerely thank the following people for helping us in completing this guide:
- Kabaka Ronald Muwenda Kimera Mutebi Il and the Buganda Kingdom, for always supporting our
conservation and research efforts at the Kasubi Tombs since the preparation of the nomination file in 1999;
- Karalyn Monteil, Regional Advisor for Culture, and her colleagues at the UNESCO Regional Office for Eastern
Africa, Nairobi, who provided unfailing administrative support;
- The J.E.Nsubuga & Associates team of Architects in Kampala for sharing all their archives with us;
- Brian Kalema, who acted as an ambassador for the thatchers during the writing of the manual and
meticulously answered all our questions;
- Rose Nkaale Mwanja, Commissioner, Museums and Monuments, Ministry of Tourism, Wildlife and
Antiquities, Uganda;
- The Government of Japan who funded the mission through the Japanese Funds-in-Trust for the
Preservation of the World Cultural Heritage;
- Daniel Kaweesi, Programme officer at the Uganda National Commission to UNESCO.
Photos & drawings
Unless otherwise stated, all photos and drawings are by Sebastien Moriset. Other photos are by David
Gandreau, Jun'ichi Hasegawa, Remigious Kigongo, Kazuhiko Nitto, Brian Kalema and Nelson Adebo Abiti.
We dedicate this guide to the exceptional Ganda craftspeople who have always
endeavoured to share their passion and who gave us great lessons of humility.
A big thank goes to Christopher Kawoya, Wabulakayole (Senior thatcher of the
Kingdom) who never stopped fighting to defend and transmit his knowledge.
Despite his great age, he keeps working at the Kasubi Tombs World Heritage Site.
36
Fabius Barungi
+256 754 598 312
Zakayo Kalule
+256 706 602 772
Steven Lumbuye Junior
+256 756 541 774
Mark Galiwango
+256 770 844 135
Emma Kasule
+256 780 960 513
Joseph Mwanje
+256 778 742 205
Simon Ssekayita
+256 789 453 661
. \ |
t
Joel Ssenkaali
+256 706 357 526
Joseph Ssentongo
+256 705 784 758
Ronald Ssekibule
+256 787 998 576
-
-
Simeo Ssentamu
+256 702 841 526
& i as
Mourice Ssewanyana
+256 756 648 516
37
Lawrence Kakooza Brian Kalema
+256 750 839 589 +256 700 601 491
Christopher Kawoya Steven Lumbuye
+256 777 956 885 +256 784 825 556
Abdul-Rahman Musisi Eddie Ndawula
+256 758 028 667 +256 750 083 465
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An introaucnhon to the smart Ganaa thatcning technique
This guide, made possible thanks to the financial support of the Japanese government, is the result of 20 years
of exchange and mutual learning between ganda craftsmen who keep their thatching technique alive and
many Ugandan and foreign researchers who have shown interest in their art of building once the Kasubi Tombs
were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. The content of this illustrated guide is based on the writings
of these researchers and has been enriched with new information obtained through interviews conducted in
2019 at Kasubi with craftspeople.
This guide aims to help all those who want to understand the incredibly
smart Ganda thatching technique in order to preserve existing roofs
but also start building new ones in the respect of traditions.
We hope this book will answer all the questions you
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may have and that it will contribute to spreading this ii ama a x
construction technique, which is entirely based fi, feed eameunnata CMPLD ANNA CRG
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on vegetable materials, and therefore
represents a technical tour de force
and a beautiful way of showing
respect for the environment.
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This manual was produced as part of a project managed by the UNESCO regional office for East Africa in Nairobi ——~ SS
and implemented with funding provided by the Government of Japan WEST : © si
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